Assignment Code: FST-1/TMA/2020.
Max. Marks: 100
1. Discuss the scientific and technical achievements in Bronze Age.
SOLUTION
The major technical advance that accompanied the rise of cities was the discovery and use
of metals, particularly copper and its alloy bronze. Simultaneously, trade between societies
flourished and gave rise to better forms of transport. The wide range of services involved in
the operations of a city gave rise to a qualitative change which marks the beginning of
conscious science. This was possible, because this initial phase of development required that
the practitioners of techniques and the priests who did only mental work solve problems
together. Recording of numbers or quantities of goods, standardising their measures,
counting and calculating, making of calendars etc. form the basis of quantitative science in
the Bronze Age. We shall now study each of these features, in brief.
The Use of Metals
Human beings were attracted by shiny gold and copper which are found free in nature and
used them originally as ornaments. Bits of metal have been found in necklaces and other
ornaments of Stone Age. However, copper nuggets beaten to different shapes were not of
much practical use as tools and weapons, as they were too soft. With the development of
fire kilns needed for making pottery, copper ores which could be easily reduced were used
to produce copper metal. Later, an alloy of copper and tin was discovered. It was harder and
stronger than copper and could be cast into tools and weapons. Casting was done by
pouring molten copper and tin mixture into vessels or "moulds". When the mixture was
allowed to cool, it took the shape of the pot. Some of the tools thus made were found to be
far superior to stone tools and weapons, and were easier to produce. The use of this new
metal meant revolution in many techniques, such as carpentry, masonry, making tools,
vessels, vases etc. In the Bronze Age civilisations in different parts of the world, the new
metal was widely used for making weapons and tools and it became a commodity of distant
trade. In India, the copper ore came from Rajasthan and was available in sufficient quantity
for export to Babylon. The problem of carrying ores from inaccessible parts to cities, and to
distant places was solved by the development of transport.
Transport
River Valley civilisations were characterised by settlements along the rivers and growth of
cities which needed, among.other things, stones and wood from distant places to make
houses and monuments. Cities also signified that everyone need not depend on land. There
was surplus production so that some people could trade or take up other occupations. The
surplus had to be traded for goods produced in different pans of the world. For example, we
have evidence that Mesopotamians traded extensively with India through Bahrain. Besides
copper, the Indians exported peacocks and apes, ivory and ivory combs, pearls and some
textiles. In return, the received silver and other commodities. Trade, as well as the desire
Science in the .Ancient World control large territories, led to the need for efficient
transport.
Quantitative Science
With the availability of surplus in agriculture and the production of non-agricultural goods
by craftsmen, exchange and trade became a part of life. With the passing of time. exchange
dealt with increasingly different types of commodities as well as increasingly large quantities
of these commodities. Therefore, what should be exchanged. with what. and in what
quantity, could no longer be,simply memorised. Some standards, such as numbers and
measure of amounts of grain etc., and $eights, became necessary so that proper quantities
of goods could be set apart or marked off for collection and exchange. For the record, the
symbol for measure was followed by a picture or shorthand symbol of thc particular object
which was to be traded. Gradually, symbols were introduced to cover actions as well as
objects, and so writing emerged. Writing developed, either as a sketched symbol standing
for a whole idea as in Chinese, or symbols and sound; going together as in Mesopotamian
cuneiform or the Egyptian hieroglyphics . The standardisation of exchange in the form of
weight led to the use of balance, a scientific invention of great consequence. Exchange also necessitated simple calculations such as addition and subtraction of numbers, which led to
arithmetic. The use of bricks for building houses gave rise to the ideas of right angle, and the
straight line, which led to the birth of what we call geometry. A strong school of modem
historian\ and archaeologists, such as Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya of Calcutta and Allch~n
of Oxford believe that the base of geometry was also laid at this time in the Indus Valley
Civilisation. The geometrical ideas of this civilisation were followed by the Greek
geometricians of the Iron Age, and thus, these came to profoundly influence modern
geometry. The practice of building in brick also gave rise to the concept of areas and
volumes of figures and solids, which could be calculated from the lengths of their sides. At
first, only the volume of rectangular blocks could be estimated. Later, in Egypt, mathematics
became sufficiently advanced to make it possible to calculate the volume of a pyramid.
Sumerians and their successors in Mesopotamia adjusted the solar (sun-based) and lunar
(moon-based) calendars through accurate observations. They invented the sexagesimal
system of 360 degrees in a circle (near enough to the days in a year), 60 minutes in an hour,
60 seconds in a minute. The exercises were carried out using mathematical tables and ied to
algebra and arithmetic of the later epochs. Another occupation that came to be very
prestigious with the growth of cities was that of medicine. Although the practice of medicine
was limited to treating wounds, dislocations, fractures etc., the practitioners could
successfully diagnose many diseases. They could compare cases with one another, notice
different diseases and record them. From such descriptions, orally passed on to later
generations, arose the sciences of anatomy and physiology. Practitioners of medicine also
had the knowledge of plants and mineral substances to prepare drugs for various diseases.
They grew plants and herbs for this purpose. It is from this source that the science of botany
arose later. The basis for chemistry was laid in the observations and practices of jewellers,
metalworkers and potters. They knew about at least nine chemical elements-gold, silver,
copper, tin, lead, mercury, iron, sulphur and carbon, and also about a variety of dry and
liquid reagents. The process of smelting ores, of purifying metals, of colouring them, of
adding enamel%-al involve complex chemical reactions that were learnt by many trials and
experiments. However, chemistry never rose to the rank of a recognised science in the
'Bronze Age.
2. Write an account on the technical innovations and inventions in Medieval India.
SOLUTION
Medieval India witnessed considerable improvement and changes in the field of technology.
While these changes were largely a result of diffusion from outside, some technological
innovations also originated in India. Diffusion from outside suggests readiness and ability to
imitate, apply and extend the use of technological devices. On the whole, that seems to
have been no inhibition against technological change.
Gearing
Gearing provides a device for transforming horizontal motion into vertical and vice versa
and for increasing or reducing speed.
One form of gearing is that of the parallel
worm which originated in ancient India. It was received in Kampuchea, in all probability,
from India before Science in 'Ie Medieval Times 1000 A.D. Parallel worm gearing was used in
wooden cotton-gin in medieval times; it was also applied to sugar milling, with wooden
rollers. Right-angled pindrum gearing came with the Persian wheel (saqiya), an improved
water lifting device received from the Arab world. India already had water lifting devices
such as pulley-system and noria (araghatta) with pot-chain (mala). The application of
pin-dnun gearing to the araghatta. converting it into what is known as the Persian wheel,
enabled water to be lifted from deeper levels, in a continuous flow, by use of cattle power.
The gear wheel and the shafi were of wood. A horizontal pindrum, meshing with a vertical
pin wheel, was rotated by cattle power. The Persian wheel was being widely used in the
Punjab and Sind by the fifteenth century.
Belt-drive
The belt drive is a comparatively simpler device than gearing for transmission of power and
for increasing or decreasing the speed of motion. Belt Drive came to India m the
fonn of the spinning wheel. The spinning wheel quickened the speed of spinning by about
six fold. This must have multed in reducing the prices of yarn and, thus, of cloth. The belt
drive was extended to the diamond cutting drill, by the the fan of an automobile engine.
seventeenth century. Weaving Evidence of an improvement in weaving comes from a
fifteenth century dictionary which describes the foot-pedals used by a weaver to control
speed. The addition of treadles to the loom facilitated the use of feet by the weaver for
lifting alternately the heddles and freed hi3 hands to throw the shuttle to and fro. This could more than double the rate of weaving.
Paper manufacture
Paper was not used in India until the eleventh century. This Chinese invention of the first
.century A.D. reached India mainly through the Ghorian conquerors. Once introduced. Its
manufacture spread quickly, and by the middle of the fourteenth century, paper became so
Sciemw cheap that it was used not only for writing but also for wrapping purposes by the
sweetmeat sellers.
Distillation
The know-how of liquor distillation also came to India during the thirteenth century. Though
it has been argued by the famous Indian chemist P.C. Ray (1861-1944 A.D.) and recently by
the Allchins and Needham on the basis of archaeological evidence, that liquor distillation
was known in ancient India, the stills seem to have been small and inefficient. With the
thirteenth century came various types of stills (for liquor as well as for rose-water) and the::
is little doubt that the manufacture of distilled spirits received great impetus.
Architecture
The architectural style of India underwent a drastic change after the Turkish conquest. The
Sultans and their nobles insisted on having arches and domes and competent Indian masons
succeeded in building them. The first surviving example of arch is Balban's tomb, dated
1280, and of dome, Alai Darwaza, dated 1305. It was the change in b;ilding technology
accompanied by the introduction of lime mortar that made possible the change from
trabeate architecture to arcuate style.
Military Technology
Important changes were introduced in military technology. Rope and wooden stumps for
horsemen were known in India before the thirteenth century. However, the iron stirrup
seems to have been introduced by the Ghorians and the Turks. This greatly improved the
combat power of horsemen. At the same time, shoeing improved the performance of
horses. Turks also brought with them the crossbow . The sross-bow had an additional tube
at right angles to the bow in which the arrow was fitted; the tube gave greater accuracy of
direction to the arrow. This tube seems to be a direct precursor of the barrel-of the
hand-gun. The next stage of development in military technology was the use of cannon and
gun powder. This innovation came to India during the latter half of the fifteenth century
from the Ottoman Empire which had itself received it from Europe.
Metal Screw
One important device that had a great potential in the manufacture of precision
instruments and machinery was the metal screw. It came into use in Europe from the
middle of the fifteenth century for holding metal pieces together. Its use was of great
importance in mechanical clocks. The screw began to be used in India by the second half of
the seventeenth century and even then it was a less efficient version of the European screw.
The grooves were not cut, but wires were soldered around the nail to create the semblance
of grooves. This had to be done owing to the absence of lathes which were used in Europe
for cutting grooves. Due to this limitation, the Indian screw did not fit properly
Ship-building
The shipbuilding industry in the seventeenth century. witnessed far-reaching changes that
mainly resulted from imitating European techniques. The Indian sea-going ships, until the
first half of the seventeenth century, were called 'junks' by the Europeans. These were very
large and supported immense main sails. In some ways, the imitations even improved upon
the originals. The Indian method of riveting planks one to the other gave much greater
strength than simple caulking used by European ship-builders. A lime compound dabbed on
planks of Indian ships provided an extraordinarily firm protection against sea-weeds.
However, it was the instruments used on ship where India lagged much behind Europe.
Indians failed to fashion modem navigation instruments. The main instrument used on
Indian ships still remained the astrolabe. Later, in the seventeenth century, European
captains and navigators were employed on Indian ships, and they naturally used telescopes,
quadrants, and other instruments that were imported from Europe.
Agriculture
Agriculture has been India's largest industry. The Indian peasants have used se-d drill from
antiquity; in the seventeenth century they practised dibbling, that is, dropping of seeds into
holes driven into the ground by sticks. They also practised crop rotation in most areas. The
number of crops grown by Indian peasants was quite large. Abu'l Fad mentions around 50
crops for kharif and 35 for rabi seasons, though their number varied from region to region.
The most remarkable quality of the Indian peasant was his readiness to accept new crops.
The new crops introduced in the seventeenth century that came from the New World were
tobacco and maize. These crops came to be grown quite widely. By the fifteenth century,
the peasants of Bengal also took up sericulture and by the seventeenth century, Bengal had
emerged as one of the great silk exporting regions in the world. Horticulture developed
considerably under aristocratic patronage. Various types of grafting were introduced. In
Kashmir, sweet cherry was obtained by grafting, and the cultivation of apricot was also
extended by the same means. During Shah Jahan's time, the quality of oranges was greatly
improved by use of the same technique. On the western coast, the Portuguese introduced
mango @ng and Alfonso was the first mango produced in this fashion. Mango grafting
seems to have spread in northern India during the eighteenth century. To sum up, in this
section we have tried to give you a brief overview of the scientific and technological
developments in India during the medieval times. If we look at the 600 years of
development of science in medieval India, we cannot but be disappointed.
There was, indeed, no effort to incorporate the latest findings in each subject, to even be
aware of the discoveries being made in contemporary Europe. There was still less effort to
develop a theoretical and philosophical understanding in which each element of knowledge
could fit. Little interest was taken in such remarkable advances as Copernican model of the
solar system, Galileo's work (1610), Newton's great work on gravitation (1665), or even
circulation of blood discovered by Harvey (1628). The invention of the printing press which
had the potential to make knowledge available to a larger number of people or again the
telescope (about 1600) and the microscope attracted no attention. It is remarkable that the
few centres of learning that existed propounded theology, either Hindu or Muslim, or
explained a body of knowledge that already e-xisted. Their role was not to break fresh
ground and develop new things.
3 . With the help of clear and labelled diagrams show the change of seasons on Earth
resulting from the tilt of its axis of rotation.
SOLUTION
The Earth's atmosphere has been studied extensively with the help of ground based
experiments, aircraft, rockets and balloons. Though it is not divided into distinct layers, it-is
helpful to think of the atmosphere in this way. The troposphere, nearest to the surface, is made up of 78 per cent nitrogen and 21 per cent oxygen, with water vapour, carbon dioxide,
neon and argon making up most of the remaining one per cent. It has an average
temperature of about 16°C at sea level and- 16OC near its top. The stratosphere, coming
next contains ozone and has a temperature ranging from - 16OC to -4OC. This ozone layer
absorbs the harmful UV radiations from, the Sun, thus protecting us from them. The carbon
dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere traps heat and makes it warmer through the greenhouse
effect (recall Sec. 11.4.2). Were it not for this, the Earth's surface temperature would be
much lower and it would always be covered with ice
The Moon rocks and soil are almost similar to the earth rocks and soil. However, they are
older and contain much higher levels of some elements like titanium and lack elements like
sodium and potassium. The lunar soil has the texture of fine damp sand. Unlike its face, the
far side of the Moon has no seas, mountains or valleys . It has only uniformly distributed
craters. The temperature of the Moon ranges from 130°C in areas directly under the Sun, to
- 170°C on its night side. It has neither water nor any atmosphere. About three billion years
ago the Moon's interior 'cooled. Since then, it has changed very little and has settled down
to a quiet existence.
The Moon is the only other heavenly body on which human beings have landed. They have
spent only a short period, though, a total of only 13 days. They brought back samples of
lunar rock and soil and much more information about the Moon which we'll briefly
describe. The Moon's surface has flat dark expanses called maria (seas), big and small aat$as,,mountains and-valleys. It also hasrilles, i.e., channels such as the ones made on.the
Earth by the cutting action of water in a river bed. There are also dome-like structures made
of concentric mountain rings.
4. Describe the various theories and experiments regarding the origin of life on Earth.
SOLUTION
Man has always wondered how he came into existence, who created him, and why he was
created. Curiosity in this connection has been so strong that every ancient thinker,
philosopher or "prophet", has tried to give some answer to this question and suggest some
mechanism for the creation of life.
Special Creation
One belief, common among people of all cultures, is that all the different forms of Ilk.
including human beings were suddenly created by a divine order about 10,000 years ago.
These innumerable forms of life have always been the same and will last witho~t change
from generation to generation until the end of the world. As we shall see later in this Unit,
such a theory of 'special creation' is unsound, because fossils of plants and animals which
must have lived a hundred thousand or more years ago have been discovered. In fact,
researches show that life existed on the Earth even 3.5 billion years ago. It seems that
simple forms of life came into being from non-liv~ng matter, and that these forms grew
more complex over a period of time.
Spontaneous Generation
If we look around at our everyday environment, we observe that straw, soil, mud, dirt,
indeed any sort of refuse or rotting matter is infested with a wriggling, moving multitude of
living organisms. Such ~observations led people to believe that life originated spontaneously
from non-living matter. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), known as the father of biology, maintained
that not only worms and insects, but also fish, frogs and mice couli spring from suitable
breeding materials like filth and moist soil. Even man might have had a similar origin! This
theory of spontaneous generation was disproved by the experiments of the French microbiologist Louis Pasteur as late as 1862. It was not easy to dislodge Aristotelian ideas. It
took all the ingenuity and experimental skill of Louis Pasteur to disprove the theory of
spontaneous generation. Pasteur performed his experiment before a gathering of
well-known biologists of the time, who were commissioned by the Academy of Sciences of
France to test his hypothesis, that only "life begets life".
Pasteur's studies helped to solve many problems related to brewing of wines. Wine making
was an important industry in France at the time and 'souring of wine' or wine going bad was
threatening this industry at that time. Pasteur showed that if certain harmful organisms
could be kept out during the brewing process, wine would not sour. These studies had a
profound effect in another area also, namely that of surgery. Surgical wounds and injuries
used to get infected invariably. So much so, that if one did not die of injury, one would
certainly die of infections caught from surgical instruments, bandages etc. Taking Pasteur's
work as the basis, it was postulated that if the wounds could be kept 'clean', i.e. if disease
producing germs could be prevented from getting into a wound, it would not get infected
and would heal better.
Chemical Evolution
The question of how life came into being in the first place still remained unanswered. To
find an answer to this question means looking back billions of years in time and trying to
imagine what the conditions on the earth could have been like, when life first appeared.
Soviet biochemist, Oparin, and the British biologist, Haldane, tried to do just that. They
proposed that "life could have arisen from non-living organic molecules". In other words, to
understand the problem of origin of life, one must have a knowledge of the origin of
'organic molecules' on the earth. In the early stages of its development, with the hot gases
condensing and molten matter which was solidifying to form what are rocks, today, the
Earth acted as the huge factory, producing many kinds of compounds. The sources of energy
available for the formation of numerous type of molecules were cosmic rays, ultraviolet
radiations, electrical discharges such as lightning, radioactivity, and heat from volcanoes and
hot springs. Molecules of all sorts were being continuously created and destroyed due to
their state of agitation. The lighter gases of the atmosphere such as hydrogen, helium, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.. escaped into space unless they could combine with other elements
to form liquids or solids. In such cases they remained on the earth. In particular, oxygen
could not remain as free oxygen. It combined with other elements to form compounds. For
example, hydrogen and oxygen combined to form water vapour, and remained in the
Earth's atmosphere. Similarly, oxygen combined with calcium and carbon to form calcium
carbonate, i.e. limestone. Again, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen combined together to form
ammonium nitrate. Compounds of carbon and hydrogen were also formed sometimes along
with nitrogen or oxygen. These compounds are, today, called "organic compounds". The
Earth had at the same time started cooling down. As the Earth cooled sufficiently, torrential
and prolonged rains were caused due to condensation of steam. The rains began to
accumulate in the depressions on the earth and so the oceans were formed. These hot
bodies of water contained abundant and varied organic compounds washed down from the
atmosphere. Continued interaction among these compounds in the warm waters resulted in
the formation of yet more compounds. The waters of this stage of the Earth's development
have been referred to as "hot dilute soup", which amongst other things also contained
"amino acids" having a composition of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. The
molecules of amino acids combined together to form large complex molecules, the
"proteins" which are the building blocks of life. It is from this accumulation of complex
organic molecules that the first extremely simple self-replicating molecular systems
accidentally originated. Because of the property of self-replication, they are called living
organisms. The Sun's deadly ultraviolet (U radiations would have killed any exposed living
molecules unless they were under the protective cover of water. Such primitive life also had
a very limited food supply, since it depended on the slow sinking of organic materials
synthesised by radiation in the upper layers of water. Thus, for millions of years, life must
have existed under these special conditions. Again, random combinations may have led to
the formation of chlorophyll containing organisms which could produce their own food by a
process called photosynthesis. Such organisms had a better chance of survival. During the
process of photosynthesis, light from the Sun helps to synthesise carbohydrates like sugar
and starch out of carbon dioxide and water. Oxygen is given off in the process. As such
organisms grew and photosynthesis proceeded, the atmosphere grew richer in free
oxygen. As we shall see, this had a profound effect on the course of subsequent events.
Oxygen when acted upon by ultraviolet radiation, forms ozone, a gas through which ultraviolet radiation cannot pass. This happens at a height of about 25 km above the surface
of the earth, giving a protective 'ozone layer'. We have, therefore, the happy chain of
events-more photosynthesis, more oxygen produced. And in its turn, more ozone produced
out of oxygen in the atmosphere. screens the earth from the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun.
This allowed living organisms to come to the surface of water and to survive even on land, if
they got thrown out of the swirling and splashing water. The oxygenation of Earth's
atmosphere was very significant from biological point of view, as organisms of greater
complexity and even intel!igence could eventually arise.
Miller's Experiment
Miller, an American biologist subjected a gaseous mixture of methane, ammonia, water
vapour and hydrogen in a closed flask at 80°C to electric sparking, for a week. This mixture,
with its temperature, and electric discharge through it, represented a situation that might
have prevailed on the earth before life came into existence. When the contents of the flask
were examined a week later, they were found to have amino acids which are essential for
the formation of proteins. As we have said before, proteins are the essential building blocks
for living organisms. With the making, in the laboratory, of molecules related to life, the
credibility of the Oparin-Haldane theory of chemical evolution greatly increased. Many
amino acids have been obtained, since by this method. So also some sugars and nitrogenous
bases which are otherwise found in the nucleus of a cell, which is a unit of living organisms.
Similar experiments have led to the production of various compounds which form many
kinds of fats and important natural pigments. Miller's experiment thus forms a turning point
in our approach to the problem of the origin of life. The evidence, we get from Miller's
experiment, is supported by evidence of similar chemical reactions occurring in space even
today. Chemical analysis of a meteorite which fell near Mirchi Murchison in Australia, in
1969, showed the presence of organic molecules. The types and relative proportions of
these molecules were very similar to the products formed in Miller's experiment. The
presence of organic molecules like methane, ethane, formaldehyde, acetylene etc. has been
shown in interstellar space by radioastronomy also.
5. Citing suitable examples explain the impact of technology on environment.
SOLUTION
People are at great risk to their health with the advancements in technology. Not only have
individual’s fabricated new ways of entertainment, but have built factories, which pollute
the air they breathe and water they drink. In Ishmael, Quinn tells of man trying to fly; when
man fails, he does not just simply give up and wait to fly, but creates a new way, that is not
fool-proof. Humans will do anything to make life easier, but for no reason than to make life
easier. But is this really making life relaxing? People still have to go to work, still have to
breathe in polluted air, and other such effects, all of which may be hazardous to their
health. Humans keep creating objects that are harmful to the environment, and they call
this "technology." Well, this may be "technology," but obviously citizens do not see that it is
taking control of their lives. Most technology is for luxury and entertainment, while a select
few fabrications are necessities, (airplanes, food machines, etc.). People really need to stop
relying on artificial intelligence for simple tasks. While technology can be a powerful force to
improve our standard of living, it comes at a cost. New technological goods are often
burdensome to the environment. This damage may come from acquiring the resources to
produce new technology, or from toxic byproducts of technological production. It can
consist of environmentally harmful waste produced by the technology itself, or the castoff
remains of obsolete technology. This very first technology and its impact on natural
environment brought greenhouse gas emissions which accumulated through more than a
million years of widespread use of fire.
Some benefits of Technology
Every day, new research is being conducted to improve the systems involved in the modern
world. New systems of removing waste and improving the efficiency of the distribution of
electricity, for example, may benefit many people in the future by cutting emissions and
improving efficiency. Projects such as those involving cars that run on cleaner fuels may also
significantly change the way we live in the future; energy efficient products such as light
bulbs will also contribute to making the environment cleaner. One of the principal reasons
behind the significant gap between the developing world and the developed world is a lack
of technology. The developed world is heavily reliant on technology which makes life much
easier and production much more efficient. Technology is lacking in developing countries
and this contributes to widespread poverty and a lack of basic amenities such as clean,
running water and food supplies. New technology which will boost food production,
improve infrastructure, improve healthcare and provide sanitation facilities could
dramatically change the quality of life in the developing world.
Bad effects of Technology on Environment
Environmental pollution occurs as a result of technology mismanagement and lack of
control measures. Technological improvement in recent years has seen production of more
machines, weapons and automobiles. Increased consumption of improved facilities triggers
demand which in turn influences supply of required quality of products that are major
effectors of industrialization using improved technology. Importance of technology in such
cases is attributed to satisfaction of human wants. Though adverse pollution of environment
due to increased production in the manufacturing and processing industries, weapons
testing and high usage of automobiles such as cars. Air pollution, water and noise pollution
are the key components of an environment that has been continually polluted as a result of
technology. Emission of large quantity of gases such as CO2 in the air by large industries
causes air pollution which in turn has degraded environment immensely. Again, disposal of
waste into the rivers and water systems by industries and other institutions is an
environmental hazard through water pollution. Similarly, a lot of noise pollution from
weapons testing and usage, industries in their routine production processes and
automobiles is causative of environmental dilapidation. Environmental degradation is a
growing concern as continued industrialization is being witnessed mostly in developed
countries. There are three major negative impacts of technology on environment discussed
in this essay. First, environmental pollution resulting from waste output is a resultant factor
of technology. Contribution to global warming is the second effect of the growing
technology. Lastly, depletion of natural resources and ecological imbalances experienced
today result from technology. Environmental pollution occurs as a result of technology
mismanagement and lack of control measures. Technological improvement in recent years
has seen production of more machines, weapons and automobiles. Increased consumption of improved facilities triggers demand which in turn influences supply of required quality of
products that are major effectors of industrialization using improved technology.
Importance of technology in such cases is attributed to satisfaction of human wants. Though
adverse pollution of environment due to increased production in the manufacturing and
processing industries, weapons testing and high usage of automobiles such as cars. Air
pollution, water and noise pollution are the key components of an environment that has
been continually polluted as a result of technology. Emission of large quantity of gases such
as CO2 in the air by large industries causes air pollution which in turn has degraded
environment immensely. Again, disposal of waste into the rivers and water systems by
industries and other institutions is an environmental hazard through water pollution.
Similarly, a lot of noise pollution from weapons testing and usage, industries in their routine
production processes and automobiles is causative of environmental dilapidation.
6. Elaborate sunlight, soil and water as basic resources for agriculture.
SOLUTION
1. Soil:
Optimum land utilisation is important if agriculture is to be productive. India has a wide
variety of soils. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) classifies them into eight
major types. Each has its own characteristics as well as deficiencies, and each is suitable for
certain crops. Soils should be tested to check their physical characteristics and nutrients
before a suitable crop is grown in it: only then can yield be maximised and soil not wasted.
Soil Erosion:
Top soil is a valuable resource—it takes nature 50 years or more to build a mere centimetre
of it. Yet soil erosion is a major problem worldwide and more so in India. While all soil
cannot be protected by trees and grass cover, for crop cultivation is a basic human need,
cropping practice can be scientifically managed to reduce waste and erosion through
(a)
contour bunding—making ridges out of the soil in the field;
(b) gully plugging—reducing the
speed of run-off water by placing materials like hedges and sand-bags in water channels;
(c)
planting green manure plants and trees on field bunds;
(d) control shifting cultivation which
if the land is not left fallow long enough, leads to soil degradation of dangerous proportions.
Soil Reclamation:
Growth of population and the increasing demand for agricultural products necessitates
reclamation of land hitherto held as unproductive. Reduced soil productivity and
abandonment of productive soil are serious issues arising out of salinisation and alkalisation.
Saline and alkaline soils result from centuries of neglect, and mismanagement. Estimates of
salt-affected soils in India vary, but the Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI) puts it
at nearly seven million hectares scattered all over the country.
Alkali soils contain large amounts of carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium, resulting in
accumulation of sodium on the surface of soil particles and high pH. The soils have poor
drainage and water transmission properties. When cultivated, clods are formed, adversely
affecting standing corps. These soils mainly occur in Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar.
Scientists at the CSSRI, Karnal, have developed effective, economical and easily acceptable
technology for reclamation of alkali soils. Successful reclamation is dependent upon
choosing the correct practices for specific problem soils, and involves studying the quality
and depth of groundwater, calcareousness of soil, and physical condition of subsoil.
2. Water:
India, situated in the monsoon belt of south-east Asia, is even now dependent to a large
extent, on rains for its agriculture. Rainfall is unevenly distributed, and in some years the
monsoon fails, resulting in drought. It is a measure of the resilience injected into our
agriculture by S&T inputs that we are not so severely affected by droughts now as in the
past. The geographic situation of the country forces us to learn to cope with inconsistent
monsoons. The average annual rainfall we receive is about 370 million hectare-metres of
which about 80 million hectare-metres of water seeps into the soil.
Half of this remains in the top soil and helps plant growth; the rest goes further down to
constitute groundwater. However, it must be noted that saline groundwater is not useful for
irrigation, so useful groundwater, according to recent reports, has depleted alarmingly.
Water being a key input for crop production, its deficiency acts as a bottleneck in the use of
other inputs. In India, several irrigation schemes—major; medium and minor—have been
implemented.
However, the efficiency of most irrigation projects is low, causing a sizeable gap between
the created and the utilised potential. Theoretically, irrigation should make possible double
and multiple cropping but this is still not the case in much of the irrigated area in India.
Water scarcity is an increasingly serious problem.
Obviously the farmers, by and large, lack knowledge of appropriate agronomic practices;
supporting facilities necessary for optimum use of irrigation works are not maintained
properly; tanks and open wells are sadly neglected. Faulty irrigation practices and absence
of proper and adequate drainage facilities have been responsible not only for waste of
water but for long-term damage to land through water logging, salinity and alkalinity, as
well as the spread of water-borne diseases.
irrigation Projects:
There was a time when the multipurpose river valley projects were hailed as the harbingers
of prosperity. Not anymore. These “temples of Modern India” as Jawaharlal Nehru termed
the dams, have no doubt proved an important factor in achieving a successful breakthrough
in agriculture and a measure of self-sufficiency in food production.
However, their success has been overrated. Serious problems have arisen. Heavy siltation of
the reservoirs of major dams reduces storage capacity, and they become incapable of absorbing heavy floods. A disastrous fallout is the degradation of the soil in the command
areas of irrigation projects due to water-logging and soil salinity.
Canal irrigation, again, has contributed to land degradation. Groundwater table rises due to
accession of applied water to groundwater through deep percolation form unlined field
channels, distributaries and main canals, and restrictive drainage due to construction
activities.
3. Seeds:
There was a time when you could get certain vegetables in certain seasons only. Not now:
these days you get cabbages and cauliflowers practically the whole year through. By genetic
manipulations, scientists have brought about change in the genetic architecture of plants
(such as dwarf and bushy) and in the development rhythms of plants (for example when the
plant flowers) so that they are no longer “season bound” but “period fixed”. These new
varieties can be fitted in rotation with other crops, or the simultaneous cultivation of crops
can increase production and productivity.
Scientists create ideotypes, or plants with ideal frame and desirable characteristics, chosen
after scanning the wide variations in the available germplasm. By incorporating several of
the desirable characters in one variety they create a hybrid which may be not only
high-yielding but also pest- and disease-resistant, and of short duration.
There are three stages in the seed production cycle for efficient implementation of the high
yielding varieties (HYV) programme. Breeder seed is the primary stage. It is multiplied into
foundation seeds to be multiplied finally into certified (quality) seeds which are distributed
to all farmers in all regions.
7. How human body battles against germs? Explain.
SOLUTION
First of all, the skin and the mucous membranes of our body help us to keep out germs.
There are glands in the skin which produce oily substances to provide a protective cover to
the surface of the skin. Perspiration helps us to eliminate certain wastes and germs out of the skin. Perspiration also contains a special chemical known as lysozyme which destroys
germs. Lysozyme is also found in tears. saliva, nasal secretion and tissue fluids. Many types
of germs which happen to reach our stomach are destroyed by strongly acidic stomach
juices. The germs which gain entry into our body, reach our organs or survive in the
stomach, take nourishment from our body to multiply. Then they begin to destroy our My
cells and also secrete toxic or poisonous substances. Unless their activity is checked they
secrete enough toxins to make us'feel sick. But more often they are overpowered by our
body. You will be surprised to know that our body has an elaborate defence system
comparable to the defence forces of a country. This defence system is called the "immune
system" and it is spread throughout the body . Defence force is in the
form of special cells, called White Blood Cells (W.B.C.) which circulate throughout the My
along with blood. The W.B.C. are of various types and fight the invader in a variety of ways.
During many kinds of infection, an automatic increase in their total number is triggered. The
number might double.triple or quadruple depending upon the severity of infection.
Therefore, doctors determine the number of W.B.C. in blood by observing a drop.of it under
the microscope. When germs attack our body, special types of W.B.C. migrate to the
infected site and destroy the "invader*' germs by engulfing them. These cells are called
"engulfing cells". Interestingly, when the fight is over, other type of W.B.C. are
directed-lo move to the site to remove dead germs and dead W.B.C. The pus that is
generally present at the site of infection contains a large number of dead cells and germs.
Another kind of W.B.C. produce a chemical weapon called "antibodies", which attack
poisons or toxic substances to make them ineffective ). These antibodies also tag
the invader so that it is easily recognised by the "engulfing cells" . Yet another
type of W.B.C. work as killer cells and directly destroy the invader or the infected body cell.
Some W.B.C, which have for the first time encountered a specific invader are held in reserve
as "trained cells" which can work for subsequent encounters effectively. The whole body
defence mechanism goes into action as soon as disease germs enter the body and cause an
alarm signal to be generated. Quite often, the body is effectively able to deal with the
infection and all symptoms like fever or inflammation subside by themselves. But at other
times, medicine must be used to supplement the body defence mechanism. After lots of
research, medicines capable of coping with a number of different infections have been
found. It is best to consult a qualified Haw doctor as soon as illness is discovered. Many a time people go to a doctor or a hospital when the invading gems have already caused great
damage to the body system.
8. List and explain the popular media of mass communication in present times.
SOLUTION
Mass communication is the process of imparting and exchanging information through mass
media to large segments of the population. It is usually understood for relating to various
forms of media, as these technologies are used for the dissemination of information, of
which journalism and advertising are part of. Mass communication differs from other forms
of communication, such as interpersonal communication and organizational communication, because it focuses on particular resources transmitting information to
numerous receivers. The study of mass communication is chiefly concerned with how the
content of mass communication persuades or otherwise affects the behavior, the attitude,
opinion, or emotion of the people receiving the information.
Normally, transmission of messages to many persons at a time is called mass
communication. But in a complete sense, mass communication can be understood as the
process of extensive circulation of information within regions and across the globe.
Through mass communication, information can be transmitted quickly to many people who
generally stay far away from the sources of information. Mass communication is practiced
multiple mediums, such as radio, television, social networking, billboards, newspapers,
magazines, film, and the Internet.
9. Prepare a note on artificial intelligence and robotics.
SOLUTION
Robotics
Robotics is a branch of technology which deals with robots. Robots are programmable
machines which are usually able to carry out a series of actions autonomously, or
semi-autonomously.
In my opinion, there are three important factors which constitute a robot:
1. Robots interact with the physical world via sensors and actuators.
2. Robots are programmable.
3. Robots are usually autonomous or semi-autonomous.
I say that robots are "usually" autonomous because some robots aren't. Telerobots, for
example, are entirely controlled by a human operator but telerobotics is still classed as a
branch of robotics. This is one example where the definition of robotics is not very clear.
It is surprisingly difficult to get experts to agree exactly what constitutes a "robot." Some
people say that a robot must be able to "think" and make decisions. However, there is no
standard definition of "robot thinking." Requiring a robot to "think" suggests that it has
some level of artificial intelligence.
However you choose to define a robot, robotics involves designing, building and
programming physical robots. Only a small part of it involves artificial intelligence.
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science. It involves developing computer
programs to complete tasks which would otherwise require human intelligence. AI
algorithms can tackle learning, perception, problem-solving, language-understanding and/or
logical reasoning.
AI is used in many ways within the modern world. For example, AI algorithms are used in
Google searches, Amazon's recommendation engine and SatNav route finders. Most AI
programs are not used to control robots.
Even when AI is used to control robots, the AI algorithms are only part of the larger robotic
system, which also includes sensors, actuators and non-AI programming.
Often — but not always — AI involves some level of machine learning, where an algorithm is
"trained" to respond to a particular input in a certain way by using known inputs and
outputs. The key aspect that differentiates AI from more conventional programming is the
word "intelligence." Non-AI programs simply carry out a defined sequence of instructions. AI
programs mimic some level of human intelligence.
10. ‘How society influences scientific development’ – explain giving suitable examples.
SOLUTION
Just as science and technology provide all the "nuts and bolts", as well as many of the ideas
that hold our society together, society itself provides the environment and atmosphere for
science and technology to grow fast or stagnate or even decay!Science and Technology do
not exist independent of the society, its culture and the value system.They are a part of the
socio-economic and political framework of a given society. Motivation for the practical
application of science and, hence its growth and use comes from the economic needs of the
society. The economic planning and policy of a society determine its social programs and the
purposes and goals of a society's production activity, which in turn provides the incentive
for scientific growth. However answers to questions like what kind of economic policy will
be pursued, whether the social program-mes will be implemented, and to what extent, depends on the political and social organizations of a society.Thus science and technology
can be effected by the general policies and social structure of a society.
For example, when economic growth is purely determined by market demands, artificial
demands for goods are created by advertising, even though there is no pressing need for
them. Ideas of people are sought to be molded by the propaganda carried on by radio or
television or even by education. The competition to produce more goods, increase profits or
the desire to provide fancy goods to and influential section of a population results in one
kind of development of science and technology.On the other hand, if a society desires and
plans to improve rural life or give priority to public health or provide a certain level of
nutrition to all citizens, the tasks and consequent development of science and technology
should follow a different path. Still another example is the question of spending money on
weapon of offence or defence that naturally affects science and technology. It is known that
the world today is spending Rs. 15 lakh crores (15,00,00,00,00,00,000) on weapons and their
development.This not only takes away money needed to feed, clothe or provide shelter to
people, but it also prevents the developments of science and technology for constructive purposes.
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